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Types of Systems

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http://www.sebokwiki.org/wiki/Types_of_Systems

This article forms part of the Systems Fundamentals knowledge area (KA). It provides various perspectives on system classifications and types of systems, expanded from the definitions presented in What is a System?.

The modern world has numerous kinds of systems that influence daily life. Some examples include transport systems; solar systems; telephone systems; the Dewey Decimal System; weapons systems; ecological systems; space systems; etc. Indeed, it seems there is almost no end to the use of the word “system” in today’s society.

This article considers the different classification systems which some systems science authors have proposed in an attempt to extract some general principles from these multiple occurrences. These classification schemes look at either the kinds of elements from which the system is composed or its reason for existing.

The idea of an engineered system is expanded. Four specific types of engineered system context are generally recognized in systems engineering: product system, service system, enterprise system and system of systems

capability.

System Classification

A taxonomy is "a classification into ordered categories" (Dictionary.com 2011). Taxonomies are useful ways of organizing large numbers of individual items so their similarities and differences are apparent. No single standard classification system exists, though several attempts have been made to produce a useful classification taxonomy. Kenneth Boulding (Boulding 1956), one of the founding fathers of general system theory, developed a systems classification which has been the starting point for much of the subsequent work. He classifies systems into nine types:

  1. Structures (Bridges)
  2. Clock works (Solar system)
  3. Controls (Thermostat)
  4. Open (Biological cells)
  5. Lower organisms (Plants)
  6. Animals (Birds)
  7. Man (Humans)
  8. Social (Families)
  9. Transcendental (God)

Bertalanffy (1968) divided systems into nine types, including control mechanisms, socio-cultural systems, open systems, and static structures. Miller (Miller 1986) offered cells, organization, and society among his eight nested hierarchical living systems levels, with twenty critical subsystems at each level.

Peter Checkland (Checkland 1999, 111) divides systems into five classes: natural systems, designed physical systems, designed abstract systems, human activity systems and transcendental systems. The first two classes are self-explanatory.

  • Designed abstract systems – These systems do not contain any physical artifacts but are designed by humans to serve some explanatory purpose.
  • Human activity systems – These systems are observable in the world of innumerable sets of human activities that are more or less consciously ordered in wholes as a result of some underlying purpose or mission. At one extreme is a system consisting of a human wielding a hammer. At the other extreme lies international political systems.
  • Transcendental systems – These are systems that go beyond the aforementioned four systems classes, and are considered to be systems beyond knowledge.

Checkland Classification of Systems  

natural systems  
designed physical systems  
designed abstract systems do not contain any physical artifacts but are designed by humans to serve some explanatory purpose
human activity systems observable in the world of innumerable sets of human activities that are more or less consciously ordered in wholes as a result of some underlying purpose or mission. At one extreme is a system consisting of a human wielding a hammer. At the other extreme lies international political systems.
transcendental systems go beyond the aforementioned four systems classes, and are considered to be systems beyond knowledge

Checkland refers to these five systems as comprising a “systems map of the universe”. Other, similar categorizations of system types can be found in (Aslaksen 1996), (Blanchard 2005) and (Giachetti 2009).

These approaches also highlight some of the subsequent issues with these kinds of classification. Boulding implies that physical structures are closed and natural while social ones are open. However, a bridge can only be understood by considering how it reacts to traffic crossing it, and it must be sustained or repaired over time (Hitchins 2007). Boulding also separates humans from animals, which would not fit into more modern thinking.

Magee and de Weck (Magee and de Weck 2004) provide a comprehensive overview of sources on system classification such as (Maier and Rechtin 2009), (Paul 1998) and (Wasson 2006). They cover some methods for classifying natural systems, but their primary emphasis and value to the practice of systems engineer is in their classification method for human-designed, or man-made, systems. They examine many possible methods that include: degree of complexity, branch of the economy that produced the system, realm of existence (physical or in thought), boundary, origin, time dependence, system states, human involvement / system control, human wants, ownership and functional type. They conclude by proposing a functional classification method that sorts systems by their process (transform, transport, store, exchange, or control), and by the entity that they operate on matter, energy, information and value.

Systems of Systems

Systems can be grouped together to create more complex systems. In some cases it is sufficient to consider these systems as systems elements in a higher level system, as part of a system hierarchy.

However, there are cases where the groupings of system produce an entity that must be treated differently from an integrated system. The most common groupings of systems that have characteristics beyond a single integrated system are Systems of Systems (SoS) and Federations of Systems (FoS).

Maier examined the meaning of System of Systems in detail and used a characterization approach which emphasizes the independent nature of the system element, rather than “the commonly cited characteristics of systems-of-systems (complexity of the component systems and geographic distribution) which are not the appropriate taxonomic classifiers” (Maier 1998, 268).

Wherever independent systems are combined into groups the interaction between the systems adds a further complexity; specifically, by constraining how the resulting system can be changed or controlled. This dimension of complexity affects the management and control aspects of the systems approach.

A more detailed discussion of the different system grouping taxonomies developed by systems science can be found in Groupings of Systems.

Engineered Systems Classifications

The classification approaches discussed above have either been applied to all possible types of systems or have looked at how man-made systems differ from natural systems. The idea of an engineered system is to provide a focus on systems containing both technology and social or natural elements, developed for a defined purpose by an engineering life cycle. Engineered Systems:

  • are created, used and sustained to achieve a purpose, goal or mission that is of interest to an enterprise, team, or an individual.
  • require a commitment of resources for development and support.
  • are driven by stakeholders with multiple views on the use or creation of the system, or with some other stake in the system, its properties or existence.
  • contain engineered hardware, software, people, services, or a combination of these.
  • exist within an environment that impacts the characteristics, use, sustainment and creation of the system.

Engineered systems typically

  • are defined by their purpose, goal or mission.
  • have a life cycle and evolution dynamics.
  • may include human operators (interacting with the systems via processes) as well as other natural components that must be considered in the design and development of the system.
  • are part of a system-of-interest hierarchy.

Historically,

Economists divide all economic activity into two broad categories, goods and services. Goods-producing industries are agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and construction; each of them creates some kind of tangible object. Service industries include everything else: banking, communications, wholesale and retail trade, all professional services such as engineering, computer software development, and medicine, nonprofit economic activity, all consumer services, and all government services, including defense and administration of justice.... (Encyclopedia Britannica 2011).

A product or service is developed and supported by an individual, team, or enterprise. For example, express package delivery is a service offered worldwide by many enterprises, public and private, small and large. These services might use vehicles, communications or software products, or a combination of the three as needed.

The nature of engineered systems has changed dramatically over the past several decades from systems dominated by hardware (mechanical and electrical) to systems dominated by software. In addition, systems that provide services, without delivering hardware or software, have become common as the need to obtain and use information has become greater. Recently, organizations have become sufficiently complex that the techniques that were demonstrated to work on hardware and software have been applied to the engineering of enterprises.

Three specific types of engineered system context are generally recognized in systems engineering: product system, service system and enterprise system.

Products and Product Systems

The word product is defined as "a thing produced by labor or effort; or anything produced" (Oxford English Dictionary). In a commercial sense a product is anything which is acquired, owned and used by an enterprise (hardware, software, information, personnel, an agreement or contract to provide something, etc.).

Product systems are systems in which products are developed and delivered to the acquirer for the use of internal or external user. For product systems, the ability to provide the necessary capability must be defined in the specifications for the hardware and software or the integrated system that will be provided to the acquiring enterprise.

Services and Service Systems

A service can be simply defined as an act of help or assistance, or as any outcome required by one or more users which can be defined in terms of outcomes and quality of service without detail to how it is provided (e.g., transport, communications, protection, data processing, etc.) Services are processes, performances, or experiences that one person or organization does for the benefit of another, such as custom tailoring a suit; cooking a dinner to order; driving a limousine; mounting a legal defense; setting a broken bone; teaching a class; or running a business’s information technology infrastructure and applications. In all cases, service involves deployment of knowledge and skills (competencies) that one person or organization has for the benefit of another (Lusch and Vargo 2006), often done as a single, customized job. In all cases, service requires substantial input from the customer or client (Sampson 2001). For example, how can a steak be customized unless the customer tells the waiter how the customer wants the steak prepared?

A service system is one that provides outcomes for a user without necessarily delivering hardware or software products to the service supplier. The hardware and software systems may be owned by a third party who is not responsible for the service. The use of service systems reduces or eliminates the need for acquirers to obtain capital equipment and software in order to obtain the capabilities needed to satisfy users.

Services have been part of the language of systems engineering (SE) for many years. The use of the term service system in more recent times is often associated with information systems, i.e.,

...unique features that characterize services – namely, services, especially emerging services, are information-driven, customer-centric, e-oriented, and productivity-focused. (Tien and Berg 2003, 13)

A more detailed discussion of the system theory associated with service systems can be found in History of Systems Science.

Enterprises and Enterprise Systems

An enterprise is one or more organizations or individuals sharing a definite mission, goals, and objectives to offer an output such as a product or service.

An enterprise system consists of a purposeful combination (network) of interdependent resources (e.g., people; processes; organizations; supporting technologies; and funding) that interact with 1.) each other (e.g., to coordinate functions; share information; allocate funding; create workflows; and make decisions), and 2) their environment(s), to achieve business and operational goals through a complex web of interactions distributed across geography and time (Rebovich and White 2011, 4, 10, 34-35).

Both product and service systems require an enterprise system to create them and an enterprise to use the product system to deliver services either internally to the enterprise or externally to a broader community.

According to Maier’s definition, an enterprise would not necessarily be called a system of systems (SoS) since the systems within the enterprise do not usually meet the criteria of operational and managerial independence. In fact, the whole purpose of an enterprise is to explicitly establish operational dependence between systems that the enterprise owns and/or operates in order to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of the enterprise as a whole. Therefore, it is more proper to treat an enterprise system and an SoS as different types of things, with different properties and characteristics (DeRosa 2005).

Enterprise systems are unique, compared to product and service systems, in that they are constantly evolving; they rarely have detailed configuration controlled requirements; they typically have the goal of providing shareholder value and customer satisfaction, which are constantly changing and are difficult to verify; and they exist in a context (or environment) that is ill-defined and constantly changing.

The notion of enterprises and enterprise systems permeates Part 5 Enabling Systems Engineering.

System of Systems Capability

As discussed above, "system of systems" is a classification used for any system which contains elements which in some way can be considered as independent (Maier 1998). Any of the other three engineered system contexts described above may have some aspects of SoS to be considered across their life cycle. Similarly, capability is a concept relevant to all system contexts, relating to the real world outcomes which system users can achieve when the system is fully deployed in its operational environment.

The term System of Systems Capability is used here to describe an engineering context in which a number of enterprise, service and product systems are brought together dynamically to provide a capability which is beyond the scope of any individual enterprise.

Understanding the need for system of systems capability is a way of setting a broader problem context for the engineering of other systems. Both product and service systems may be engineered to both satisfy immediate stakeholder needs and to have the potential to be used for the composition of SoS capabilities. Engineering at the Enterprise level can include an Enterprise Capability Management activity, in which possible SoS problems are explored and used to identify gaps in the enterprise's current product and service portfolio. (See the SEBoK, Part 4 Applications of Systems Engineering)

References

Works Cited

Aslaksen, E.W. 1996. The Changing Nature of Engineering. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Bertalanffy, L. von. 1968. General System Theory. New York, NY, USA: Brazillier.

Blanchard, B.S., and W.J. Fabrycky. 2005. Systems Engineering and Analysis, 4th ed. Prentice-Hall International Series in Industrial and Systems Engineering. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall.

Boulding, K. 1956 “General Systems Theory: Management Science, 2, 3 (Apr. 1956) pp.197-208; reprinted in General Systems, Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research, vol. 1, 1956.

Checkland, P.B. 1999. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Dictionary.com, s.v. "Taxonomy," Accessed December 3 2014 at Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/taxonomy.

Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Service Industry," Accessed December 3 2014 at Dictionary.com http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/535980/service-industry.

DeRosa, J. K. 2005. “Enterprise Systems Engineering.” Air Force Association, Industry Day, Day 1, 4 August 2005, Danvers, MA.

Giachetti, R.E. 2009. Design of Enterprise Systems: Theory, Architectures, and Methods. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

Hitchins, D. 2007. Systems Engineering: A 21st Century Systems Methodology. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley.

Lusch, R.F. and S. L. Vargo (Eds). 2006. The service-dominant logic of marketing: Dialog, debate, and directions. Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe Inc.

Magee, C.L. and O.L. de Weck. 2004. "Complex System Classification". Proceedings of the 14th Annual International Symposium of the International Council on Systems Engineering, 20-24 June, 2004, Toulouse, France.

Maier, M. W. 1998. "Architecting Principles for Systems-of-Systems". Systems Engineering, 1(4): 267-84.

Maier, M., and E. Rechtin. 2009. The Art of Systems Architecting, 3rd Ed.. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

Miller J. G. 1986. "Can Systems Theory Generate Testable Hypothesis?: From Talcott Parsons to Living Systems Theory?" Systems Research. 3:73-84.

Paul, A.S. 1998. "Classifying Systems." Proceedings of The 8th Annual International Council on Systems Engineering International Symposium, 26-30 July, 1998, Vancouver, BC, Canada.

Rebovich, G., and B.E. White (eds.). 2011. Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

Sampson, S.E. 2001. Understanding Service Businesses. New York, NY, USA: John Wiley.

Tien, J.M. and D. Berg. 2003. "A Case for Service Systems Engineering." Journal of Systems Science and Systems Engineering. 12(1): 13-38.

Wasson, C.S. 2006. System Analysis, Design and Development. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley and Sons.

Primary References

Checkland, P. B. 1999. Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons.

Magee, C. L., O.L. de Weck. 2004. "Complex System Classification." Proceedings of the 14th Annual International Council on Systems Engineering International Symposium, 20-24 June 2004, Toulouse, France.

Rebovich, G., and B.E. White (eds.). 2011. Enterprise Systems Engineering: Advances in the Theory and Practice. Boca Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press.

Tien, J.M. and D. Berg. 2003. "A Case for Service Systems Engineering". Journal of Systems Science and Systems Engineering. 12(1): 13-38.


https://www.tutorialspoint.com/signals_and_systems/systems_classification.htm

Systems are classified into the following categories:

  • Liner and Non-liner Systems
  • Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems
  • Liner Time variant and Liner Time invariant systems
  • Static and Dynamic Systems
  • Causal and Non-causal Systems
  • Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems
  • Stable and Unstable Systems

Liner and Non-liner Systems

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate principles. Consider two systems with inputs as x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1(t), y2(t) respectively. Then, according to the superposition and homogenate principles,

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]

∴,

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t)

From the above expression, is clear that response of overall system is equal to response of individual system.

Example:

(t) = x2(t)

Solution:

y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = x12(t)

y2 (t) = T[x2(t)] = x22(t)

T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)]2

Which is not equal to a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the system is said to be non linear.

Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time. Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant.

The condition for time invariant system is:

y (n , t) = y(n-t)

The condition for time variant system is:

y (n , t)

y(n-t)

Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = input change

y (n-t) = output change

Example:

y(n) = x(-n)

y(n, t) = T[x(n-t)] = x(-n-t)

y(n-t) = x(-(n-t)) = x(-n + t)

∴

y(n, t) ≠ y(n-t). Hence, the system is time variant.

Liner Time variant (LTV) and Liner Time Invariant (LTI) Systems

If a system is both liner and time variant, then it is called liner time variant (LTV) system.

If a system is both liner and time Invariant then that system is called liner time invariant (LTI) system.

Static and Dynamic Systems

Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.

Example 1: y(t) = 2 x(t)

For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the output is only dependent upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static.

Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)

For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).

Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to get this output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.

Causal and Non-Causal Systems

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past inputs, and does not depend upon future input.

For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.

Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)

For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).

Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system is causal.

Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)

For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4) Here, the system output depends upon future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.

Invertible and Non-Invertible systems

A system is said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the output.

Invertible system

Y(S) = X(S) H1(S) H2(S)

= X(S) H1(S) · 1(H1(S))

Since H2(S) = 1/( H1(S) )

∴,

Y(S) = X(S)

y(t) = x(t)

Hence, the system is invertible.

If y(t)

x(t), then the system is said to be non-invertible.

Stable and Unstable Systems

The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded input. For a bounded input, if the output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.

Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.

Example 1: y (t) = x2(t)

Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = u2(t) = u(t) = bounded output.

Hence, the system is stable.

Example 2: y (t) = x(t)dt

Let the input is u (t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = u(t)dt

= ramp signal (unbounded because amplitude of ramp is not finite it goes to infinite when t

infinite).

Hence, the system is unstable.


http://www.freetutes.com/systemanalysis/classifications-of-system.html

From previous section we have a firm knowledge of various system components and its characteristics. There are various types of system. To have a good understanding of these systems, these can be categorized in many ways. Some of the categories are open or closed, physical or abstract and natural or man made information systems, which are explained next.

Classification of systems can be done in many ways.

Physical or Abstract System

Physical systems are tangible entities that we can feel and touch. These may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, take a computer center. Desks and chairs are the static parts, which assist in the working of the center. Static parts don't change. The dynamic systems are constantly changing. Computer systems are dynamic system. Programs, data, and applications can change according to the user's needs.

Abstract systems are conceptual. These are not physical entities. They may be formulas, representation or model of a real system.

Open Closed System

Systems interact with their environment to achieve their targets. Things that are not part of the system are environmental elements for the system. Depending upon the interaction with the environment, systems can be divided into two categories, open and closed.

Open systems: Systems that interact with their environment. Practically most of the systems are open systems. An open system has many interfaces with its environment. It can also adapt to changing environmental conditions. It can receive inputs from, and delivers output to the outside of system. An information system is an example of this category.

Closed systems:Systems that don't interact with their environment. Closed systems exist in concept only.

Man made Information System

The main purpose of information systems is to manage data for a particular organization. Maintaining files, producing information and reports are few functions. An information system produces customized information depending upon the needs of the organization. These are usually formal, informal, and computer based.

Formal Information Systems: It deals with the flow of information from top management to lower management. Information flows in the form of memos, instructions, etc. But feedback can be given from lower authorities to top management.

Informal Information systems: Informal systems are employee based. These are made to solve the day to day work related problems. Computer-Based Information Systems: This class of systems depends on the use of computer for managing business applications. These systems are discussed in detail in the next section.

See Also


https://sysdesc.info/Content/System/SYS_TopClass.pdf

Top Level System Classification, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Page 1 of (15) Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Top Level System Classification

Top Level System Classification

System Descriptions

Abstract

This document contains system descriptions for Top Level System Classification that integrates the Living Sys-

tems approach from Fritjof Capra and the system classification system from Peter Checkland.

The top level system classes are the following:

o Natural Systems

o Human Activity Systems

o Designed Physical Systems

o Designed Abstract Systems

o Transcendental Systems

These systems provide a top level system classification for all identified systems. This Top Level System Clas-

sification highlights the impacts and potential of human activity for the Anthropocene.

PDF: System Description: System (Abstract), Version 0.30, 27-December-2023 (working draft)

Link to the System Patterns PDF

Link to the Top System Classifications PDF

Author and Version

Bruce McNaughton, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Contents

Top Level System Classification Overview 2 Natural Systems 4 System: Human Activity System (HAS) 7 Designed Physical Systems 9 Designed Abstract Systems 11 Transcendental Systems 13 References 15 The Systems View of Life, Fritjof Capra and Pier Luigi Luisi 15 Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Peter Checkland 15 Re-Creating the Corporation, Russell Ackoff 15 Doughnut Economics, Kate Raworth 15 Revision History

V0.1 20-August-2022 Revise the various system descriptions to latest understanding.

V0.0 05-July-2019 Initial Draft

Top Level System Classification, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Page 2 of (15) Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Top Level System Classification

Top Level System Classification Overview

This document contains system descriptions for Top Level System Classification that integrates the Living Sys-

tems approach from Fritjof Capra and the system classification system from Peter Checkland.

The top level system classes are the following:

o Natural Systems

o Human Activity Systems

o Designed Physical Systems

o Designed Abstract Systems

o Transcendental Systems

These systems provide a top level system classification for all identified systems. This Top Level System Clas-

sification highlights the impacts and potential of human activity for the Anthropocene.

PDF: System Description: System (Abstract), Version 0.30, 27-December-2023 (working draft)

Link to the System Patterns PDF

Link to the Top System Classifications PDF

System Classification Framework

A System Classification Framework provides a way to position a system-of-interest in a wider context of sys-

tems. This System Classification Framework is used to:

n Identify types of systems.

n Promote reuse across a set of systems and system types

n Ensure alignment of similar types of systems and reduce duplicate definitions.

The System Classification Framework provides the following benefits:

n A top level set of system types that can be used for any system-of-interest.

n A way to reuse aspects of systems using generalizations that allow inheritance of the key elements of a

system.

n A way to integrate across systems based upon consistent references to defined systems using a single

abstract system class..

n A way to reuse AD Elements across the full set of defined systems (e.g. viewpoints, views, view com-

ponents, other system descriptions, etc).

The top level System Classification Framework is based upon Peter Checkland's system classification model.

Peter Checkland includes a system classification approach in his book Systems Thinking, System Practice. The

following form the top level set of systems in this classification scheme:

The top level System Classification Framework is described in the book from page 102 to page 122. Figure 4,

page 112 highlights the 5 system classes. These classes are used as a top level classification for system types.

Link to the Top System Classifications PDF

Russell Ackoff's System Classification

Russell Ackoff's System Classifications were also considered. The following types of systems comes from Re-

Creating the Corporation

Top Level System Classification, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Page 3 of (15) Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Top Level System Classification

n Deterministic System

n Animated System

n Social System

n Ecological System.

These classifications were considered; however, they use are use "Purposeful System" as a differentiator

between system types and was considered too narrow for this System Classification Framework.

Current Systems in the System Classification Framework

. The current systems that have been identified using the top level classification types are shown in the diagram

below:

Note: that all of the types of systems are based upon a single definition and model of an abstract system. Each

system inherits the single definition of system. This provides a consistent way to describe each type of system

using a System Description based upon the SysDesc ADF.

Top Level System Classification, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Page 4 of (15) Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Top Level System Classification

Natural Systems

View: System Name and Class

Name: Natural System

Based on: System (Abstract)

View: System Purpose

Each system will have its own purpose. Many of the systems identified will have their purpose within the context

of an Ecosystem.

n Provide a natural physical environment for life to flourish (land, water, mountains, etc.)

n Evolve the biological organisms living on Earth

View: System Properties

Systemic Measurable Variables

The emergent properties created or used through the interaction of the elements. This includes both desired and

undesired.

Systemic Capabilities or Functions

Each natural system will have their own unique capabilities or functions.

n Home for all species of living organisms

n Maintaining an environment for life (oxygen, water, food, land, etc)

n Events (volcanoes, storms, earthquakes, etc)

System States

The various defined states that the system-of-interest can be in.

n Architectural states

n Transformational States

n Operational States

View: System Stakeholders and Concerns

The stakeholders for a Natural System are formed in a Human Activity System where the members have an

interest in the system-of-interest. There may be associated Human activity systems that form a cross-disciplined

team to explore more of the aspects of a particular system. In addition to the humans (organisms), the following

additional systems are also stakeholders:

n all organisms living in an ecosystem (whole planet or specific ecosystem)

n Any abiotic systems in the ecosystem (whole planet or specific ecosystem)

View: System Environment (Context)

Each natural system will have their own unique boundaries and environment. Many of these are established by

the ecosystem for the system-of-interest:

n Boundaries are established with the other types of systems

n Finite capacity and finite ability to maintain system integrity

n Interaction with other parts of the solar system (meteors, solar flares, etc).

View: Pattern of Organization

Natural Systems consist of the following types of systems:

Top Level System Classification, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Page 5 of (15) Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Top Level System Classification

The following diagram highlights the types of Living Systems which are types of Natural Systems.

Top Level System Classification, Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Page 6 of (15) Version 0.1, 20-August-2022 Top Level System Classification

The natural systems provide a basis for the identification of ecosystems that include the following:

n Land (mountains, under sea, etc)

n Organisms (humans, animals, plants, trees, bacteria, etc)

n Water (including the water cycle).

n Atmosphere (air, protection, etc).

Note: A social system consists of organisms. This accounts for the social systems for ants, Bees and other living

systems. When the social system contains one or more people, the social system is called a Human Activity Sys-

tem (HAS)..

View: Structural Changes

Configuration / Scenario:

Describes any configuration / scenario attributes for a specific system-of-interest. This may not be appropriate

for all system descriptions (e.g. patterns or abstract systems).

Cyclical (Repeating / Regular) Processes

Natural Systems have a number of types of regular / repeating cycles. Most have regular cycles based upon

time.

n Daily Cycle

n Monthly Cycle

n Annual Cycle

Others have patterns based upon the characteristics of the elements within the system:

n Biogeochemical Cycle

Development Life Cycle Processes

Natural Systems also have their own development life cycles that depend upon the environment and the system

characteristics. Some of these are:

n Evolution due to normal reactions to change

n Catastrophic events

n Man made changes and events

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System: Human Activity System (HAS)

View: System Name and Class

Name: Human Activity System (HAS)

Based on: Social System

The main difference between a social system and the Human Activity System (HAS) is that at least one member

of the social network is a Person (Human Being). The capabilities of the Person (Human Being) significantly

alter the communication within the social network. Human Beings also are able to create and use symbol sys-

tems.

Each specific type of Human Activity System (HAS) will have its own System Description. Key definitions and

context are found in the Social System System Description

Abstract System: This system has been identified as an abstract system that cannot be implemented directly.

The abstract system establishes a shared pattern of characteristics that any system can use to describe its

unique characteristics when referenced in the 'based on' list above. These references are described using a gen-

eralization association in UML.

View: System Purpose

The purpose of a Human Activity System (HAS) depends upon the specific type of system. Some examples

might be:

n Provide a way for humans to live on Earth (Gaia)

n Promote collaboration, creation, maintenance, etc.

n Create community.

View: System Properties

Systemic Measurable Variables

The emergent properties created or used through the interaction of the elements. This includes both desired and

undesired.

Systemic Capabilities or Functions

Systemic Capabilities or Functions depend upon the specific type of Human Activity System (HAS). Some

examples might be:

n A place for a person to grow and develop

n Households create / consume to live

n Economic properties

System States

The various defined states that the system-of-interest can be in.

n Architectural states

n Transformational States

n Operational States

View: System Stakeholders and Concerns

The stakeholders of a Human Activity System (HAS) depend upon the specific type of system. Typically the

classes of stakeholders are those who:

n establish the needs and requirements of a System (Abstract)

n architect and design a System (Abstract)

n are members of the Human Activity System (HAS)

n benefit from the System (Abstract)

View: System Environment (Context)

The elements of the Environment for the Human Activity System (HAS) depends upon the specific type of sys-

tem. At a minimum, the other types of system in the classification system will be present. These are:

n Natural Systems provide the place for living and food supplies

n Designed Physical Systems provide protection from environment, and productivity improvements.

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n Designed Abstract Systems provide beauty, arts and music capabilities. Also mental capabilities of

books, etc.

n Transcendental Systems provide areas to explore in our understanding of the world.

The Human Activity System (HAS) is a part of the Human Activity Habitat which is part of the Ecosystem where

the system is located.

View: Pattern of Organization

System Element: Identification

The members of the social network contain at least one Person (Human Being).

The social structures for human activity systems tend to be written to ensure a shared understanding. They do

not need to be written.

The culture developed for the human activity system is created through communication to coordinate actions

and behaviour.

Each of the types of Human Activity Systems will have their own System Description unique to the specific type

of Human Activity System (HAS).

View: Structural Changes

Configuration / Scenario:

Describes any configuration / scenario attributes for a specific system-of-interest. This may not be appropriate

for all system descriptions (e.g. patterns or abstract systems).

Cyclical (Repeating / Regular) Processes

Each system has regular patterns of renewal, maintenance, etc Some are annual, monthly or daily.

Development Life Cycle Processes

Human activity systems are created, maintained and released based upon the various developmental phases of

the specific type of systems life cycle (e.g. government, enterprise, household, financial institution, com-

munities, etc). Other governance activities may arise as each system is created and operated.

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Designed Physical Systems

View: System Name and Class

Name: Designed Physical System

Based on: System (Abstract)

Abstract System: This system has been identified as an abstract system that cannot be implemented directly.

The abstract system establishes a shared pattern of characteristics that any system can use to describe its

unique characteristics when referenced in the 'based on' list above. These references are described using a gen-

eralization association in UML.

Designed Physical Systems relate to Technology Systems and may be part of a specific technology domain.

See Technology System for additional information.

View: System Purpose

Each Designed Physical System will have its own purpose as agreed by the stakeholders of a Human Activity

System (HAS) responsible for the creation of a Designed Physical System. Some of these purposes may

include:

n To improve productivity of human endeavors / life

n To provide protection for natural systems (flood protection, etc.)

n To provide protection for ecosystems and the biodiversity in these ecosystems.

View: System Properties

Systemic Measurable Variables

The emergent properties created or used through the interaction of the elements. This includes both desired and

undesired.

Systemic Capabilities or Functions

Each designed physical system will have unique capabilities and functions as agreed by stakeholders in the

Human Activity System. Some examples of these are:

n Function / Capability Provided (take from A to B, dig hole, bridge across river).

n Performance improvement

n Costs / benefits

n Expected life time (time to replace).

n Events (Accident, breakdown, etc)

n States (in development, in use, etc)

System States

The various defined states that the system-of-interest can be in.

n Architectural states

n Transformational States

n Operational States

View: System Stakeholders and Concerns

The stakeholders of a Designed Physical System are members of a Human Activity System (HAS) such as:

n The designers and funders of the System (Abstract)

n The creators or developers of the system (with unique skills).

n The users of the System (Abstract)

n Those people who benefit from the system.

View: System Environment (Context)

Each designed physical system will have their own unique environment as identified by the stakeholders of a

Human Activity System (HAS). Some of these consist of:

n Interaction with the Natural Systems (use of resources, interface with natural systems)

n Interaction with humans or other animals (organisms).

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n Interface with other designed systems.

n Created, maintained and released by human activity systems and their life cycle (see below).

View: System Structure (Pattern of Organization)

Each designed physical system will be a system-of-interest for a human activity system. The structure of the sys-

tem-of-interest will typically be a System Breakdown Structure This may be at any level of detail. These

examples are examples of domains of Designed Physical System that are found in the following types of Human

Activity Infrastructure Service (HAIS).

n Transportation Systems.

n Energy Systems

n Food production systems.

n Built environment (homes, office buildings, sport facilities, etc)

n Communication Systems.

n Computational Systems

n Realized components interacting in the system

n (See Human Activity Infrastructure Services)

View: System Behavior (Structural Changes)

Configuration / Scenario:

Describes any configuration / scenario attributes for a specific system-of-interest. This may not be appropriate

for all system descriptions (e.g. patterns or abstract systems).

Cyclical (Repeating / Regular) Processes

There are a number of types of regular / repeating processes in designed physical systems. These will be

unique to the system-of-interest and may be in the areas of:

n Operations (regular operations).

n maintenance / repair / event handling

Development Life Cycle Processes

Each Designed Physical System will have a unique life cycle. Some characteristics are:

n Typical product / system development life cycle (e.g. ISO 15288:2015)

n Generally created by a human activity system.

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Designed Abstract Systems

View: System Name and Class

Name: Designed Abstract System

Based on: System (Abstract)

Abstract System: This system has been identified as an abstract system that cannot be implemented directly.

The abstract system establishes a shared pattern of characteristics that any system can use to describe its

unique characteristics when referenced in the 'based on' list above. These references are described using a gen-

eralization association in UML.

Designed Abstract Systems are those that can represent the following types of systems:

n Symbol System (Abstract) (Language, Music, Mathematics, etc)

n System (Abstract)

n Money

Note: Designed Abstract Systems may be part of the development life cycle of a designed physical system.

Such as a process or architecture. These would be used to help develop the designed physical system.

View: System Purpose

The purpose of a Designed Abstract System is to provide an opportunity for humans to describe a system that

may not exist (architecture) or a set of concepts in the mind (conceptual model) that can be described as a sys-

tem. Some of these types are:

n Enjoyment (art, music, poetry, stories, sports, etc.)

n Understanding the world (mathematics, science, research, etc.)

n Understanding Systems (abstract systems)

n Symbol Systems (Language, Mathematics, Music, etc)

View: System Properties

Systemic Measurable Variables

The emergent properties created or used through the interaction of the elements. This includes both desired and

undesired.

Systemic Capabilities or Functions

n Shared understanding or meaning

n Communication

n Beauty

n Accuracy

n Factual

System States

The various defined states that the system-of-interest can be in.

n Architectural states

n Transformational States

n Operational States

View: System Stakeholders and Concerns

The stakeholders of the designed abstract system are:

n The designers / creator s of the System (Abstract)

n The users of the System (Abstract)

n Those who benefit from the System (Abstract)

View: System Environment (Context)

The environment depends upon the type of Designed Abstract System. Some examples are:

n Human activity systems (creation, maintenance, improvement, etc)

n Designed Physical System

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n Natural System (reflection of our natural world).

View: System Structure (Pattern of Organization)

The pattern of organization depends upon the specific Designed Abstract System. Some examples are:

n Mental images written down

n Conceptual Models (abstract design) based upon a network of connected concepts

n Skills development

n Documented information about the system.

View: System Behavior (Structural Changes)

Configuration / Scenario:

Describes any configuration / scenario attributes for a specific system-of-interest. This may not be appropriate

for all system descriptions (e.g. patterns or abstract systems).

Cyclical (Repeating / Regular) Processes

n Trigger: event starting a process; Process: a response to the trigger relative to the Designed Abstract Sys-

tem.

Development Life Cycle Processes

n Life cycles of development of abstract things (art, music, poetry, stories, etc).

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Transcendental Systems

View: System Name and Class

Name: Transcendental System

Based on: System (Abstract)

View: System Purpose

Each system being explored will have a unique purpose. This type of system begins to create a system descrip-

tion for this type of named system:

n To understand things beyond our current knowledge

n (Ref: Boulding, systems beyond knowledge).

View: System Properties

Systemic Measurable Variables

The emergent properties created or used through the interaction of the elements. This includes both desired and

undesired.

Systemic Capabilities or Functions

Each system will have their own unique types of capabilities or functions. As these emerge, they will be iden-

tified in this section. Some examples are:

n Intuition

n Spirituality

n Dark Matter

n Beyond the universe

System States

The various defined states that the system-of-interest can be in.

n Architectural states

n Transformational States

n Operational States

View: System Stakeholders and Concerns

At a minimum, there will be a Human Activity System established to explore this named area. This HAS will

establish a set of stakeholders and a community of practice to explore this area. This team will:

n Explore and establish elements of a system description.

n Agree on boundary, shared terminology and definitions for this system

n Open to new ideas and innovation

View: System Environment (Context)

The environment consists of the existing identified systems in the overall classification. Any of these existing sys-

tems can be used to help identify or provide base information.

n Full classification system to date to inform the new systems

n Use of cross discipline explorations into related areas.

View: Pattern of Organization

Each system will have their own pattern of organization

n Conceptual Framework of Ideas

n System elements

n System properties (phenomenon we don't understand but experience)

View: Structural Changes

Configuration / Scenario:

Describes any configuration / scenario attributes for a specific system-of-interest. This may not be appropriate

for all system descriptions (e.g. patterns or abstract systems).

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Cyclical (Repeating / Regular) Processes

Routine operational processes to maintain the system

Provides support to deliver the capabilities or functions of the system.

Development Life Cycle Processes

Each system will have their own development life cycles. These will be identified in this area.

n New idea formulation

n Relationships to other classifications and their type of life cycle.

n Possible emergence of new life cycle concepts

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References

The Systems View of Life, Fritjof Capra and Pier Luigi Luisi

The Systems View of Life

This book is supported by the Capra Course which provides a 12 week course covering the four dimensions of life:

Biological, Cognitive, Social, and Ecological.

A Capra Course Glossary is available in the Capra Course Alumni Network - A global Community of Practice

related to the book.

See chapter 14 for information on social systems.

Systems Thinking, Systems Practice, Peter Checkland

Systems Thinking, Systems Practice: Includes a 30 Year Retrospective

This book contains a good description of Human Activity Systems (HAS) based on a root definition to describe a

human activity system (CATWOE). These are both used in the Soft Systems Methodology (SSM).

The concept of the Root Definition has been extended to the System Description that is produced using the System

Description Architecture Description Framework. The Human Activity System has also been extended from living

social systems.

The book also contains a simple system classification scheme that is being used to define a Earth (Gaia) as a Sys-

tem of Systems model. The system classification system is described in the book from page 102 to page 122. Fig-

ure 4, page 112 highlights the 5 system classes. This book also has a good glossary of terms.

This system classification scheme is also being used as the System Classification Framework for the System

Description Architecture Description Framework. This framework captures the identified systems and their type.

Re-Creating the Corporation, Russell Ackoff

Re-Creating the Corporation: A Design of Organizations for the 21st Century

Definition of a System and 5 Conditions; Multi-Dimentional Organization Design; Interactive Planning; and more.

System of System Concepts

Doughnut Economics, Kate Raworth

Doughnut Economics

Two models in the book are being used heavily in the development of the Human Activity Ecosystem models: The

Doughnut and the Embedded Economy. The Doughnut is like a balanced scorecard for the planet and the

Embedded Economy model is a good starting point to explore the systems that are creating the doughnut problems

and the changes that are needed to bring the world into the doughnut safe and just place.

Kate Raworth and Herman Daly Video

Doughnut Economics pictures used with permission, Kate Raworth, 2017


Links

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Complex Adaptive Systems

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Natural Systems

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Self-Organizing Systems

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Unthinkable Systems

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Pages in Other Languages

Categories:

Part 2

Topic

Systems Fundamentals

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